(2003) Higher Education and Social Class: Issues of Exclusion and Inclusion, London: Routledge. (2010) Securing a Sustainable Future for Higher Education (The Browne Review), London: HMSO. Advancement in technological innovation requires the application of technical skills and knowledge; thus, attracting and retaining talented knowledge workers have become crucial for incumbent firms . Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. The issue of graduate employability tends to rest within the increasing economisation of HE. Graduate Employability has come to mean many different things. For much of the past decade, governments have shown a commitment towards increasing the supply of graduates entering the economy, based on the technocratic principle that economic changes necessitates a more highly educated and flexible workforce (DFES, 2003) This rationale is largely predicated on increased economic demand for higher qualified individuals resulting from occupational changes, and whereby the majority of new job growth areas are at graduate level. Hinchliffe, G. and Jolly, A. Applying a broad concept of 'employability' as an analytical framework, it considers the attributes and experiences of 190 job seekers (22% of the registered unemployed) in two contiguous travel-to-work areas (Wick and Sutherland) in the northern Highlands of Scotland. Such graduates are therefore likely to shy away, or psychologically distance themselves, from what they perceive as particular cultural practices, values and protocols that are at odds with their existing ones. Structural Functionalism/ Consensus Theory. volume25,pages 407431 (2012)Cite this article. Tomlinson, M. (2008) The degree is not enough: Students perceptions of the role of higher education credentials for graduate work and employability, British Journal of Sociology of Education 29 (1): 4961. Once characterised as a social elite (Kelsall et al., 1972), their status as occupants of an exclusive and well-preserved core of technocratic, professional and managerial jobs has been challenged by structural shifts in both HE and the economy. In some countries, for instance Germany, HE is a clearer investment as evinced in marked wage and opportunity differences between graduate and non-graduate forms of employment. Keynesian economics was developed by the British economist John Maynard Keynes . This paper reviews some of the key empirical and conceptual themes in the area of graduate employability over the past decade in order to make sense of graduate employability as a policy issue. This review has highlighted how this shifting dynamic has reshaped the nature of graduates transitions into the labour market, as well as the ways in which they begin to make sense of and align themselves towards future labour market demands. The theory rests on the assumption that Conservative governments in this time period made an accommodation with the social democratic policy . Even those students with strong intrinsic orientations around extra-curricula activities are aware of the need to translate these into marketable, value-added skills. These negotiations continue well into graduates working lives, as they continue to strive towards establishing credible work identities. While consensus theory emphasizes cooperation and shared values, conflict theory emphasizes power dynamics and ongoing struggles for social change. In the more flexible UK market, it is more about flexibly adapting one's existing educational profile and credentials to a more competitive and open labour market context. Mason, G. (2002) High skills utilisation under mass higher education: Graduate employment in the service industries in Britain, Journal of Education and Work 14 (4): 427456. According to conflict theory, employability represents an attempt to legitimate unequal opportunities in education, labour market at a time of growing income inequalities. The problem of graduate employability and skills may not so much centre on deficits on the part of graduates, but a graduate over-supply that employers find challenging to manage. The more recent policy in the United Kingdom towards raising fee levels has coincided with an economic downturn, generating concerns over the value and returns of a university degree. Green, F. and Zhu, Y. poststructuralism, Positional Conflict Theory as well as liberalhumanist thought. Accordingly, there has been considerable government faith in the role of HE in meeting new economic imperatives. The problem has been largely attributable to universities focusing too rigidly on academically orientated provision and pedagogy, and not enough on applied learning and functional skills. (2006) showed that students choices towards studying at particular HEIs are likely to reflect subsequent choices. In more flexible labour markets such as the United Kingdom, this relationship is far from a straightforward one. Ainley, P. (1994) Degrees of Difference, London: Lawrence Washart. Employability depends on your knowledge, skills and attitudes, how you use those assets, and how you present them to employers. The New Right argues that liberal left politicians and welfare policies have undermined the . 229240. Understanding both of these theories can help us to better understand the complexities of society and the various factors that shape social relationships and institutions. Moreover, supply-side approaches tend to lay considerable responsibility onto HEIs for enhancing graduates employability. More positive accounts of graduates labour market outcomes tend to support the notion of HE as a positive investment that leads to favourable returns. Edvardsson Stiwne, E. and Alves, M.G. This is most associated with functionalism. This may have a strong bearing upon how both graduates and employers socially construct the problem of graduate employability. Some graduates early experience may be empowering and confirm existing dispositions towards career development; for others, their experiences may confirm ambivalent attitudes and reinforce their sense of dislocation. Little, B. and Archer, L. (2010) Less time to study, less well prepared for work, yet satisfied with higher education: A UK perspective on links between higher education and the labour market, Journal of Education and Work 23 (3): 275296. These risks include wrong payments to staff due to delay in flow of information in relation to staff retirement, death, transfers . The problem of managing one's future employability is therefore seen largely as being up to the individual graduate. Far from neutralising such pre-existing choices, these students university experiences often confirmed their existing class-cultural profiles, informing their ongoing student and graduate identities and feeding into their subsequent labour market orientations. Driven largely by sets of identities and dispositions, graduates relationship with the labour market is both a personal and active one. (2009) The Bologna Process in Higher Education in Europe: Key Indicators on the Social Dimension and Mobility, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Consensus Theory The consensus theory is based on the propositions that technological innovation is the driving . Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE). Puhakka, A., Rautopuro, J. and Tuominen, V. (2010) Employability and Finnish university graduates, European Educational Research Journal 9 (1): 4555. Harvey, L., Moon, S. and Geall, V. (1997) Graduates Work: Organisational Change and Students Attributes, Birmingham: QHE. The downside of consensus theory is that it can be less dynamic and more static, which can lead to stagnation. Lessons from a comparative survey, European Journal of Education 42 (1): 1134. This is then linked to research that has examined the way in which students and graduates are managing the transition into the labour market. In countries where training routes are less demarcated (for instance those with mass HE systems), these differences are less pronounced. Smart et al. Fugate and Kinicki (2008, p.9) describe career identity as "one's self-definition in the career context."Chope and Johnson (2008, p. 47) define career identity in a more scientific manner where they state that "career identity reflects the degree to which individuals define themselves in terms of a particular organisation, job, profession, or industry". If individuals are able to capitalise upon their education and training, and adopt relatively flexible and proactive approaches to their working lives, then they will experience favourable labour market returns and conditions. A common theme has been state-led attempts to increasingly tighten the relationship and attune HE more closely to the economy, which itself is set within wider discourse around economic change. Purpose. Wilton, N. (2008) Business graduates and management jobs: An employability match made in heaven? Journal of Education and Work 21 (2): 143158. The subjective mediation of graduates employability is likely to have a significant role in how they align themselves and their expectations to the labour market. For instance, non-traditional students who had studied at local institutions may be far more likely to fix their career goals around local labour markets, some of which may afford limited opportunities for career progression. The increasingly flexible and skills-rich nature of contemporary employment means that the highly educated are empowered in an economy demanding the creativity and abstract knowledge of those who have graduated from HE. X@vFuyfDdf(^vIm%h>IX, OIDq8 - Consensus theories generally see crime as unusual, dysfunctional and believe something has 'gone wrong' for the people who commit crime. Little ( 2001 ) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional construct, and there is a demand to separate between the factors relevant to the occupation and readying for work. Research has continually highlighted engrained employer biases towards particular graduates, ordinarily those in possession of traditional cultural and academic currencies and from more prestigious HEIs (Harvey et al., 1997; Hesketh, 2000). The differentiated and heterogeneous labour market that graduates enter means that there is likely to be little uniformity in the way students constructs employability, notionally and personally. Department for Business Innovation and Skills (DIUS). What such research shows is that young graduates entering the labour market are acutely aware of the need to embark on strategies that will provide them with a positional gain in the competition for jobs. Smetherham, C. (2006) The labour market perceptions of high achieving UK graduates: The role of the first class credential, Higher Education Policy 19 (4): 463477. This article attempts to provide a conceptual framework on employability skills of business graduates based on in-depth reviews. The relative symbolic violence and capital that some institutions transfer onto different graduates may inevitably feed into their identities, shaping their perceived levels of personal or identity capital. Critical approaches to labour market change have also tended to point to the structural inequalities within the labour market, reflected and reinforced through the ways in which different social groups approach both the educational and labour market fields. The end of work and its commentators, The Sociological Review 55 (1): 81103. Employability is a product consisting of a specific set of skills, such as soft, hard, technical, and transferable. Further research from the UK authorities stated that: "Our higher instruction system is a great plus, both for persons and the state. The consensus theory emphasizes that the social order is through the shared norms, and belief systems of people. 1.2 Problematization The issue with Graduate Employability is that it is a complex and multifaceted concept, which evolves with time and can easily cause confusion. The role of employers and employer organisations in facilitating this, as well as graduates learning and professional development, may therefore be paramount. research investigating employability from the employers' perspective has been qualitative in nature. Increasingly, graduates employability needs to be embodied through their so-called personal capital, entailing the integration of academic abilities with personal, interpersonal and behavioural attributes. This research showed the increasing importance graduates attributed to extra-curricula activities in light of concerns around the declining value of formal degrees qualifications. Marginson, S. (2007) University mission and identity for a post-public era, Higher Education Research and Development 26 (1): 117131. Moreover, individual graduates may need to reflexively align themselves to the new challenges of labour market, from which they can make appropriate decisions around their future career development and their general life courses. This is likely to result in significant inequalities between social groups, disadvantaging in particular those from lower socio-economic groups. Brown and Hesketh's (2004) research has clearly shown the competitive pressures experienced by graduates in pursuit of tough-entry and sought-after employment, and some of the measures they take to meet the anticipated recruitment criteria of employers. Career choices tend to be made within specific action frames, or what they refer to as horizons for actions. The New Right argument is that a range of government policies, most notably those associated with the welfare state, undermined the key institutions that create the value consensus and ensure social solidarity. Summary. The strengths of consensus theory are that it is a more objective approach and that it is easier to achieve agreement. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of some of the dominant empirical and conceptual themes in the area of graduate employment and employability over the past decade. Discussing graduates patterns of work-related learning, Brooks and Everett (2008) argue that for many graduates this learning was work-related and driven by the need to secure a particular job and progress within one's current position (Brooks and Everett, 2008, 71). This insight, combined with a growing consensus that government should try to stabilize employment, has led to much Brown, P. and Lauder, H. (2009) Economic Globalisation, Skill Formation and The Consequences for Higher Education, in S. Ball, M. Apple and L. Gandin (eds.) Over time, however, this traditional link between HE and the labour market has been ruptured. Graduates are perceived as potential key players in the drive towards enhancing value-added products and services in an economy demanding stronger skill-sets and advanced technical knowledge. The literature review suggested that there is a reasonable degree of consensus on the key skills. the consensus and the conflict theory on graduate employability . Reducing the system/structure down to the graduate labour market, there are parallels between Archer's work and consensus theory (Brown et al. Theory could be viewed as a coherent group of assumptions or propositions put forth to . Many graduates are increasingly turning to voluntary work, internship schemes and international travel in order to enhance their employability narratives and potentially convert them into labour market advantage. Findings from previous research on employability from the demand side vary. Handbook of the Sociology of Education, New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. Young, M. (2009) Education, globalisation and the voice of knowledge, Journal of Education and Work 22 (3): 193204. Savage, M. (2003) A new class paradigm? British Journal of Sociology of Education 24 (4): 535541. The past decade in the United Kingdom has therefore seen a strong focus on employability skills, including communication, teamworking, ICT and self-management being built into formal curricula. Studies of non-traditional students show that while they make natural, intuitive choices based on the logics of their class background, they are also highly conscious that the labour market entails sets of middle-class values and rules that may potentially alienate them. As Clarke (2008) illustrates, the employability discourse reflects the increasing onus on individual employees to continually build up their repositories of knowledge and skills in an era when their career progression is less anchored around single organisations and specific job types. At another level, changes in the HE and labour market relationship map on to wider debates on the changing nature of employment more generally, and the effects this may have on the highly qualified. These concerns seem to be percolating down to graduates perceptions and strategies for adapting to the new positional competition. Brown, P., Lauder, H. and Ashton, D.N. The simultaneous decoupling and tightening in the HElabour market relationship therefore appears to have affected the regulation of graduates into specific labour market positions and their transitions more generally. Perhaps significantly, their research shows that graduates occupy a broad range of jobs and occupations, some of which are more closely matched to the archetype of the traditional graduate profession. Research done by Brooks and Everett (2008) and Little (2008) indicates that while HE-level study may be perceived by graduates as equipping them for continued learning and providing them with the dispositions and confidence to undertake further learning opportunities, many still perceive a need for continued professional training and development well beyond graduation. Fevre, R. (2007) Employment insecurity and social theory: The power of nightmares, Work, Employment and Society 21 (3): 517535. The research by Brennan and Tang shows that graduates in continental Europe were more likely to perceive a closer matching between their HE and work experience; in effect, their HE had had a more direct bearing on their future employment and had set them up more specifically for particular jobs. However despite there being different concepts to analyse the make up of "employability", the consensus of these is that there are three key qualities when assessing the employability of graduates: These . Reviews for a period of 20 years between 1994 and 2013 have been assimilated and categorized into two propositions. Morley ( 2001 ) nevertheless states that . This has tended to challenge some of the traditional ways of understanding graduates and their position in the labour market, not least classical theories of cultural reproduction. Hassard, J., McCann, L. and Morris, J.L. A consensus theory is one which believes that the institutions of society are working together to maintain social cohesion and stability. While it has been criticized for its lack of attention to power and inequality, it remains an important contribution to the field of criminology. Hammer, Peter McIlveen, Soo Jeung Lee, Seungjung Kim & Jisun Jung, Higher Education Policy There are two key factors here. These two theories are usually spoken of as in opposition based on their arguments. 1.2 THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT The purpose of G.T. Critically inclined commentators have also gone as far as to argue that the skills agenda is somewhat token and that skills built into formal HE curricula are a poor relation to the real and embodied depositions that traditional academic, middle-class graduates have acquired through their education and wider lifestyles (Ainley, 1994). Such notions of economic change tend to be allied to human capital conceptualisations of education and economic growth (Becker, 1993). The relatively stable and coherent employment narratives that individuals traditionally enjoyed have given way to more fractured and uncertain employment futures brought about by the intensity and inherent precariousness of the new short-term, transactional capitalism (Strangleman, 2007). 's (2005) research showed similar patterns among UK Masters students who, as delayed entrants to the labour market and investors in further human capital, possess a range of different approaches to their future career progression. One has been a tightening grip over universities activities from government and employers, under the wider goal of enhancing their outputs and the potential quality of future human resources. Bridgstock, R. (2009) The graduate attributes weve overlooked: Enhancing graduate employability through career management skills, Higher Education Research and Development 28 (1): 3144. Continued training and lifelong learning is one way of staying fit in a job market context with shifting and ever-increasing employer demands. . Furthermore, this relationship was marked by a relatively stable flow of highly qualified young people into well-paid and rewarding employment. Thus, a significant feature of research over the past decade has been the ways in which these changes have entered the collective and personal consciousnesses of students and graduates leaving HE. They also include the professional skills that enable you to be successful in the workplace. Increasingly, individual graduates are no longer constrained by the old corporate structures that may have traditionally limited their occupational agility. Policymakers continue to emphasise the importance of employability skills in order for graduates to be fully equipped in meeting the challenges of an increasingly flexible labour market (DIUS, 2008). Little and Arthur's research shows similar patterns among European graduates, there are generally higher levels of graduate satisfaction with HE as a preparation for future employment, as well as much closer matching up between graduates credentials and the requirements of jobs. For Beck and Beck-Germsheim (2002), processes of institutionalised individualisation mean that the labour market effectively becomes a motor for individualisation, in that responsibility for economic outcomes is transferred away from work organisations and onto individuals. This research highlighted that some had developed stronger identities and forms of identification with the labour market and specific future pathways. The purpose of this study is to explain the growth and popularity of consensus theory in present day sociology. Employability is a key concept in higher education. In relation to the more specific graduate attributes agenda, Barrie (2006) has called for a much more fine-grained conceptualisation of attributes and the potential work-related outcomes they may engender. Brooks, R. and Everett, G. (2008) The predominance of work-based training in young graduates learning, Journal of Education and Work 21 (1): 6173. Kelsall, R.K., Poole, A. and Kuhn, A. Holmes, L. (2001) Graduate employability: The graduate identity approach, Quality in Higher Education 7 (1): 111119. The relationship between HE and the labour market has traditionally been a closely corresponding one, although in sometimes loose and intangible ways (Brennan et al., 1996; Johnston, 2003). Less positively, their research exposed gender disparities gap in both pay and the types of occupations graduates work within. What more recent research on the transitions from HE to work has further shown is that the way students and graduates approach the labour market and both understand and manage their employability is also highly subjective (Holmes, 2001; Bowman et al., 2005; Tomlinson, 2007). Sennett, R. (2006) The Culture of New Capitalism, Yale: Yale University Press. Conflict theory in sociology. A number of tensions and potential contradictions may arise from this, resulting mainly from competing agendas and interpretations over the ultimate purpose of a university education and how its provision should best be arranged. It now appears no longer enough just to be a graduate, but instead an employable graduate. Bowman et al. There is no shortage of evidence about what employers expect and demand from graduates, although the extent to which their rhetoric is matched with genuine commitment to both facilitating and further developing graduates existing skills is more questionable. Compelling evidence on employers approaches to managing graduate talent (Brown and Hesketh, 2004) exposes this situation quite starkly. Ideally, graduates would be able to possess both the hard currencies in the form of traditional academic qualifications together with soft currencies in the form of cultural and interpersonal qualities. European-wide secondary data also confirms such patterns, as reflected in variable cross-national graduate returns (Eurostat, 2009). According to Keynes, the volume of employment in a country depends on the level of effective demand of the people for goods and services. This may be largely due to the fact that employers have been reasonably responsive to generic academic profiles, providing that graduates fulfil various other technical and job-specific demands. Have a strong bearing upon how both graduates and employers socially construct the of... Side vary Degrees of Difference, London: Lawrence Washart HE and the conflict theory on graduate tends! 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